Stoicism, an ancient philosophy, offers profound insights for modern living. It's a guide to finding tranquility amidst chaos, and resilience in adversity. Let's delve into its principles, its relevance today, and how it can transform our perspective towards life's challenges.
Ethics and Virtues
Good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control.
- Stoic ethics stressed the rule: “Follow where reason leads.”
- The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426-435): Wisdom (σοφία “sophia”), Courage (ανδρεια “andreia”), Justice (δικαιοσύνη “dikaiosyne”) and Temperance (σωφροσομυρια)
- Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason.
Epistemology
Truth can be distinguished from fallacy-even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made.
- The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)-approve or reject-an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can only achieve varying degrees of hesitant approval.
Physics, Theology, and Cosmology
According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material, reasoning substance, known as God or Nature, divided into two classes: active and passive.
- The active substance, called Fate or Universal Reason (Logos), is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:
- Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature.
Stoic philosophers
Zeno of Citium (332-262 BC), founder of Stoicism
- Aristo of Chios (fl. 260 BC), pupil of Zeno
- Cleanthes (of Assos) (330-232 BC), second head of Stoic Academy Chrysippus (280-204 BC), third head of the academy
- Diogenes of Babylon (230-150 BC)
- Antipater of Tarsus (210-129 BC) Panaetius of Rhodes (185-109 BC) Posidonius of Apameia (c. 135 BC – 51 BC) Diodotus
- Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus
- Epictetus (AD 55-135) Hierocles (2nd century AD) Marcus Aurelius
Modern usage
The word “stoic” commonly refers to someone indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.
- In contrast to the term “Epicurean”, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy’s entry on Stoicism notes that the sense of the English adjective’stoical’ is not misleading.
Terminology
Stoic comes from the Greek stōïkos, meaning “of the stoa [portico, or porch]”.
- This, in turn, refers to the Stoa Poikile, or “Painted Stoa,” in Athens, where the influential Stoic Zeno of Citium taught.
Basic tenets
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions
- A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s ethical and moral well-being
- The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is “like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes”.[8] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, “sick and yet happy”
Propositional Logic
Diodorus Cronus, one of Zeno’s teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle’s term logic.
- Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotelian logic.
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC
It is predominantly a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and views on the natural world.
- According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to happiness for humans is found in accepting the moment as it presents itself, by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or fear of pain, by using one’s mind to understand the world and to do one’s part in nature’s plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly.
Primary sources
A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987
- Hadas, Moses (ed.), Essential Works of Stoicism, Bantam Books 1961
- Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint Edition, January 1955
- Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth, or translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0-679-64260-9
- Oates, Whitney Jennings, The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers
External links
Baltzly, Dirk. “Stoicism”. In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from the original on 23 September 2012.
- Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). “Stoics”. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). The Stoic Library
- The Rebirth of Stoicism
- Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectics
The doctrine of “things indifferent”[ edit]
In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law-that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends.
- Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent
- A large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent
Spiritual Exercise
Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims, it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or “askēsis”).
- Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, training attention to remain in the present moment, and daily reflection.
Stoic Categories
The Stoics held that all being (ὄντα) – though not all things (τινά) – is material.
- They held that there were four categories: substance (ὑποκείμενον), quality (ποιόν), somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον) and characteristics related to other phenomena (τευμα).
History
Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire, to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray, “nearly all the successors of Alexander […] professed themselves Stoics.”
- Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile (“Painted Porch”), from which his philosophy got its name.
- Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora.
Social Philosophy
A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism
- All people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another according to the Stoics
- They held that external differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships
- Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings
Influence on Christianity
Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world
- They believe in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity-or “persistent evil”-of humankind, and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments
- Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one’s humanity can be awakened and developed
Studies
Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, May 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
- Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) ISBN 0-691-01660-7
- Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006)
- Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau. Inwood, Brad. Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 2012
- Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1
- Sellars, John. Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom. University of California Press, 2001
- Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.Press, 2004
